Unveiling the Geometric Elegance: A Comparative Analysis of Historical Garden Structures and Spatial Relations

Kamyab Kiani; Mahdi Zandieh; Hossein Medi; Mohammad Mehdi Zarrabi

doi:10.3097/LO.2025.1135

Authors

Kamyab Kiani Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU), Department of Architecture, Qazvin; Iran https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1856-6999
Mahdi Zandieh Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU), Department of Architecture, Qazvin; Iran https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7474-0333
Hossein Medi Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU), Department of Architecture, Qazvin; Iran https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5537-593X
Mohammad Mehdi Zarrabi Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU), Department of Agriculture and plant resources, Qazvin; Iran https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2024-3101

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3097/LO.2025.1135

Keywords:

depth map, line length, gate count, connectivity, historical garden structures

Abstract

Historical gardens epitomize socio-cultural values intricately embedded within their geometric designs and spatial configurations, offering a window into collective and civic life through the lens of landscape architecture. This study explores the interplay between the geometric structures of historical gardens from the late 16th and early 17th centuries and their spatial dynamics, aiming to bridge historical design principles with contemporary landscape practices.

Employing advanced software tools and inferential statistical methods, the research examines ten renowned historical gardens spanning Persian, Mughal, East Asian, European formal, and English landscape traditions. The analysis is based on satellite maps, field observations, and simulations conducted using Depthmap software. It identifies a universal set of geometric features, quantified through metrics such as Connectivity (C), Visual Integration (VI), Visual Entropy (VE), and Gate Counts (GC), alongside their contextual cultural interpretations. Persian and Mughal gardens, with high Visual Integration, symbolize unity and spirituality, while the fragmented layouts of East Asian gardens reflect meditative exploration. In contrast, European formal gardens emphasize dominance through high Connectivity and Line Length, whereas English landscape gardens promote emotional resonance and choice-driven exploration.

Quantitative correlations highlight the interconnectedness of design elements, such as the positive relationships between Connectivity, Visual Integration, and Gate Counts, and the inverse relationship between Visual Entropy and Connectivity. These findings are contextualized within cultural frameworks, revealing how spatial characteristics align with philosophical traditions and shape user experiences. By integrating quantitative metrics with qualitative cultural narratives, this study provides a comprehensive framework for understanding historical garden design. The insights offer significant implications for modern landscape architecture, urban planning, and cultural heritage preservation, advocating for the integration of historical geometric principles to create green spaces that resonate with both environmental and cultural values.

References

Abbas, M. Y., Nafisi, N., & Nafisi, S. (2016). Persian garden, cultural sustainability and environmental design: Case study Shazdeh Garden. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 222, 510–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.142

Akasaka, M. (2008). The trial on the conservation for the quondam traditional scenic beauty Waka-no-Ura: Between real and imaginative landscapes. In Proceedings of the 11th China-Japan-Korea Landscape Architecture Symposium (pp. 1–10).

Alitajer, S., & Nojoumi, G. M. (2016). Privacy at home: Analysis of behavioral patterns in the spatial configuration of traditional and modern houses in the city of Hamedan based on the notion of space syntax. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 5(3), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2016.02.003

Baridon, M. (2008). A history of the gardens of Versailles. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Bassin, J. (1979). The English landscape garden in the eighteenth century: The cultural importance of an English institution. Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies, 11(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/4048316

Bazarovna, N. Y., & Dzhakhongirovna, A. P. (2023). History of garden art and landscape architecture. Central Asian Journal of Arts and Design, 4(3), 343–347.

Biscione, M., Gaspari, F., Romagnoli, G., & Masini, N. (2023). A late 16th century garden in Ponte dell’Elce (Viterbo, Italy): Research improvement and conservation issues. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 43(2), 108–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2023.2231772

Chen, G., Shi, J., Xia, Y., & Furuya, K. (2020). The sustainable development of urban cultural heritage gardens based on tourists’ perception: A case study of Tokyo’s cultural heritage gardens. Sustainability, 12(16), Article 6315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166315

Cullen, J., Knees, S. G., Cubey, H. S., & Shaw, J. (2011). The European garden flora: Flowering plants: A manual for the identification of plants cultivated in Europe, both out-of-doors and under glass (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press.

Dickie, J., & Zaki, Y. (1985). The Mughal garden: Gateway to paradise. Muqarnas, 3, 128–137. https://doi.org/10.2307/1523089

Dursun, P. (2007). Space syntax in architectural design. In 6th International Space Syntax Symposium (pp. 1–12). Istanbul Technical University.

Eriksson, J. (2012). Peterhof and Drottningholm. [Publisher not specified].

Goto, S. (2003). The Japanese garden. Peter Lang Publishing.

Grajewski, T. (1992). Interaction in the work environment. University College London.

Habibullah, A., & Ruggles, D. F. (2024). The 21st-century Islamic garden: Connecting the present to the past. Landscape Journal, 43(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3368/lj.43.2.1

Haghighatbin, M., & Masouleh, S. A. (2019). The comparative study of ritual and cultural symbols in the landscaping of Persian and Chinese gardens. Bagh-e Nazar, 16(77), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.22034/bagh.2019.135996.3633

Hristov, D., Naumov, N., & Petrova, P. (2018). Interpretation in historic gardens: English Heritage perspective. Tourism Review, 73(2), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-04-2017-0067

Hunt, J. D. (1990). The Dutch garden in the seventeenth century (Vol. 12). Dumbarton Oaks.

Hunt, J. D. (2016). Garden and grove: The Italian Renaissance garden in the English imagination, 1600–1750. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Hunt, J. D., & Willis, P. (1988). The genius of the place: The English landscape garden, 1620–1820. MIT Press.

ICOMOS. (1981). The Florence Charter: Historic gardens. International Council on Monuments and Sites. https://www.icomos.org/en/part-4/31857-the-florence-charter

Keane, M. P. (2012). Japanese garden design. Tuttle Publishing.

Khalesian, M., Pahlavani, P., & Delavar, M. R. (2009). A GIS-based traffic control strategy planning at urban intersections. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, 9(1), 166–174.

Kiani, K., Bemanian, M., & Yeganeh, M. (2022). Comparative analysis of Persian garden values based on prospect–refuge theory indicators. Armanshahr Architecture & Urban Development, 15(40), 177–190. https://doi.org/ 10.22034/aaud.2020.242274.2280

Kiani, K., & Khakzand, M. (2024). The structure, concept and identity of traditional Chinese gardens. Landscape History, 45(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/01433768.2024.2407194

Kroll, A. A. (2021). How has the English landscape garden developed? National Trust. https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/how-has-the-english-landscape-garden-developed

Lazzaro, C., & Lieberman, R. (1990). The Italian Renaissance garden: From the conventions of planting, design, and ornament to the grand gardens of sixteenth-century Central Italy. Yale University Press.

Leslie, M. (1992). Spenser, Sidney, and the Renaissance garden. English Literary Renaissance, 22(1), 3–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6757.1992.tb01030.x

Lima, J. J. (2001). Socio-spatial segregation and urban form: Belém at the end of the 1990s. Geoforum, 32(4), 493–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7185(01)00019-7

Martin, J. (1934). Baroque gardens and fountains. Bulletin of Spanish Studies, 11(44), 217–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/14753825012331364394

McElhinney, S. (2018). Isovist_2.2: A basic user guide, v1.1. Isovist. http://www.isovist.org/

Morgan, L. (2015). The monster in the garden: The grotesque and the gigantic in Renaissance landscape design. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Mubin, S. (2013). Mughal gardens in the city of Lahore: A case study of Shalimar Garden. Pakistan Journal of Science, 65(4), 529–535.

Mukerji, C. (1997). Territorial ambitions and the gardens of Versailles. Cambridge University Press.

Mukerji, C. (2012). Space and political pedagogy at the gardens of Versailles. Public Culture, 24(3), 509–534. https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-1630663

Nottagh, S., & Belali Oskuyi, A. (2023). Explaining the factors affecting the realization of Islamic teachings in the functional system of the Persian garden. Journal of Art and Civilization of the Orient, 11(41), 30–45. https://doi.org/10.22034/jaco.2023.393615.1310

Ono, S. (2005). Opening a private garden to the public through an intermediary: The case of Rikugien Garden in Tokyo in the 18th century. Communities Constructing, 209–220.

Paiva, P. D. de O., Sousa, R. de B., & Alves, S. F. N. de S. C. (2021). Patchwork quilt: A methodology proposed for the study of historic gardens. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 62, Article 127169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127169

Pearson, R. (2023). The archaeology of ancient Japanese gardens. Asian Perspectives, 62(2), 202–244. https://doi.org/10.1353/asi.2023.a909235

Peng, Y., Zhang, G., Nijhuis, S., Agugiaro, G., & Stoter, J. E. (2024). Towards a framework for point-cloud-based visual analysis of historic gardens: Jichang Garden as a case study. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 91, Article 128159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2023.128159

Rahbar, S. (2024). The trajectivity of Persian gardens: A study to rethink contemporary landscape design. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 44(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2024.2350879

Rinaldi, B. M. (2012). The Chinese garden: Garden types for contemporary landscape architecture. Walter de Gruyter.

Sharghi, A., Azizmoghadam, M. A., & Gandomani, Z. J. (2020). Comparative study of fractal geometry patterns in Iranian garden and landscape architecture: Case study of Tabas Golshan Garden. Bagh-e Nazar, 17(85), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.22034/bagh.2019.164706.3927

Smith, P. (2009). Rufford Abbey and its gardens in the 17th and 18th centuries. English Heritage Historical Review, 4(1), 122–153.

Steenbergen, C. M., Reh, W., & Smienk, G. (2003). Architecture and landscape: The design experiment of the great European gardens and landscapes. Birkhäuser.

Thacker, C. (1985). The history of gardens. University of California Press.

Thompson, I. (2006). The Sun King’s garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre and the creation of the gardens of Versailles. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Turner, A. (2001). Depthmap: A program to perform visibility graph analysis. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Space Syntax (pp. 31.1–31.9). University of Michigan.

Turner, A. (2004). Depthmap 4: A researcher’s handbook. University College London.

Turner, A. (2007). UCL Depthmap 7: From isovist analysis to generic spatial network analysis. In New developments in space syntax software (pp. 43–51). Istanbul Technical University.

Turner, A., Doxa, M., O’Sullivan, D., & Penn, A. (2001). From isovists to visibility graphs: A methodology for the analysis of architectural space. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 28(1), 103–121. https://doi.org/10.1068/b2684

Turner, T. (2011). European gardens: History, philosophy and design. Routledge.

Vale, T. (2013). Genoese sculpture in Portuguese baroque gardens. Gardens & Landscapes of Portugal, 1, 1–10. [Publisher: CHAIA/CHAM/Mediterranean Garden Society].

Vaughan, L., & Grajewski, T. (2001). Space syntax observation manual. University College London.

Wilber, D. N. (1957). Bāgh-e Fīn near Kashan. Ars Orientalis, 2, 506–508.

Willis, P. (1977). Charles Bridgeman and the English landscape garden. Zwemmer.

Wu, W., Zhou, K., Li, T., & Dai, X. (2024). Spatial configuration analysis of a traditional garden in Yangzhou city: A comparative case study of three typical gardens. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 23(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2270012

Zhang, T., Tang, G., & Lian, Z. (2023). The mathematics of spatial structure evolution: Using syntactical data to compare the Humble Administrator’s Garden in the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. Nexus Network Journal, 25(2), 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00004-023-00649-9